As the 1920’s changed into the 1930’s, the definition of the “American Way of Life” morphed along with the times. The focus that was the 20’s, which was centralized around civilization, adapted in the 30’s to have a greater emphasis on culture. Along with the literature that noted the change, the new ideas were also reflected in both the speech of former President Herbert Hoover and in other forms of art and media of the times. All of these signs emphasized society’s desire to move on from a period of pain and distrust and move to reinvent an American lifestyle that was created not only by the people, but was intended for the people.
Before we can look at the visual aids that reflected the new thoughts of the 1930’s, it is important to redefine the desires and goals of Americans. As America progressed, there was a common belief to move away from industry, and urban society, and move into a new faith of the social sciences. Sparked by new literature and media, there was a renewed sense of nationalism found among Americans, which led to their acceptance of so many new social focal points. “Certainly few, if any, decades in our history could claim the production of such a vast literature-to say nothing of a vast body of films, recordings, and paintings-that described and defined every aspect of American life (Susman, 157).” This new found motivation to inspire the common folks, who were still feeling the devastating effects from The Great Depression, was met with great enthusiasm, as they were looking for any new reason to put their past behind them. The creation of new works of literature were ways for writers to document, and remind, the country of the great values that had been established as guidelines for furthering the health of the nation. Fortunately for the citizens, not only was their great improvement in the literature, but there was an advancement of other technologies, such as sound, which served multiple purposes in advancing the nation.
The introduction of sound to movies, or “talkies,” along with its addition to Big Band music, to enhance their appeal, as well as to political speeches, gave a human connection to those objects which may have had a distant feeling to them. No longer would the audience be lost in the silence of their own thoughts, creating their own interpretations. Instead, sound allowed ordinary people to forget their everyday situations and think about something completely different, through mediums such as radio shows and movies. Finally, other new inventions of the time, such as the development of photography and a greater emphasis on organized sports, allowed everybody to participate, regardless of one’s education level. “The whole idea…makes it possible to see, know, and feel the details of life, its styles in different places, to feel oneself part of some other’s experience (Susman, 159).” This expansion on common ideals allowed all Americans to unite, not through class distinctions, but as American citizens, with no distinction of backgrounds.
This new “American Way of Life” was not only a social movement, but was a foundation for great political thought and debate. I believe that President Herbert Hoover, and his belief of a “laissez-faire” approach to American government was the ideal representation of the social setting. In his speech, This Challenge to Liberty, he raises many critical faults of the plan presented by President Roosevelt, as he emphasized that government couldn’t and shouldn’t have an overwhelming force over the people. “You cannot extend the mastery of government over the daily life of a people without somewhere making it master of people's souls and thoughts (Hoover, 9).” This thought is represented through all of the new social innovations, as free-market capitalism allowed consumers to decide, and not the “unseen hand” of the government, what they desired to escape the times. As there may have been a general disconnect between the American public and the government, with blame of the Great Depression resting squarely on their shoulders, it was important for the government not to intercede into everyday lives anymore than absolutely necessary.
“We want a land of health, and greater recreation for everybody. We want more opportunity for the creation and care of beauty and those things which satisfy the spirit (Hoover, 56).” Once again, President Hoover is bringing forth the importance of satisfying the American body and spirit over economic and political issues. Hoover argues that allowing the public to regroup mentally will lead to a better rebound than the New Deal could ever hope, even if it doesn’t lead directly to new jobs. According to Hoover, if the government overextends themselves into the daily lives of the everyday American, it may make them discontent and unwilling to work in new public works jobs, stalling any possible recovery from the Great Depression. However, if there is a general satisfaction found among the masses, they are going to be more willing to get back into the workforce and put the dark days in the past.
One of the murals that I believe represents President Hoover’s viewpoint on American policy is “And the migrants kept coming,” by Jacob Lawrence. I believe that this image demonstrates free will at its finest, as the viewer is shown hundreds of people waiting on the train platform with all of their possessions in hand. Another aspect to consider is that there are no faces shown in the mural, which demonstrates that at this point in time, everyone is equal. However, each and everyone has the opportunity to strike it rich and make a name for themselves, and not be restrained by a social program that doesn’t differentiate, such as the New Deal. Next, with an unknown future ahead of them, there is a general nervousness that is spread across the platform. However, at the same time, there is probably an excitement found among the travelers, as each one of these people are taking a chance with their lives by moving to new parts of the country for new economic opportunities. Each and every one of the migrants wants the next opportunity to secure economic fortune without any direction or instruction from the federal government.
The second mural that I believe emphasizes the feelings of President Hoover is “Industrial Life,” by Seymour Fogel. In the picture display, the viewer is shown what appears to be one man at four different points in his career, with him going from a novice position to one that requires knowledge and experience. At the beginning of the picture, the man is seen doing manual labor outside, followed by working the machines of the factory, proceeded by looking at designs of either a machine or building, with his conclusion coming as a scientist examining different ingredients. This progression of labor shows Hoover’s position that anyone can achieve any position to better themselves so long as they have the determination and will to succeed. This differs from the position of President Roosevelt, where there is uniformity found between all of the workers, with very little opportunity to distinguish themselves from the rest of the majority.
A second element that I considered to be a distinguishing characteristic which relates to President Hoover is the fact that the beginning of the mural begins in the morning and conclusion of the normal is at the same time as the sun is setting. I believe this illustrates Hoover’s thoughts of a complete and successful life being one with great personal achievement, which has been noted in this mural. Not only do the jobs in the illustration become progressively more advanced, but the clothing that the man is wearing also becomes progressively more dignified. As there is a move away from manual labor and a progression towards skilled labor, the clothing also increases in importance to match the position. This goes against Roosevelt’s proposal for employment because Hoover recognizes the need for more than just “simpleton” work. For the United States to stay competitive, the country is going to need workers to fill the roles of higher importance, which requires individuals to have the drive to desire a higher position instead of being allotted into a certain slot because of government actions.
Wednesday, February 25, 2009
Wednesday, February 11, 2009
Overcoming False Pretenses
At the changeover from the 19th to the 20th century, there was a period of transition where the responsibilities of the American woman were in flux. As old beliefs meshed with new ideas of the refined concept of the role of the American woman, immigrant women and black women were forced to reevaluate their positions in society and change to accommodate the mindsets of white women. The validity of these beliefs aside, black women and immigrant women struggled to overcome demeaning significations and to create a new representation of these “foreign” women.
At the end of the 19th century, leading into the beginning of the 20th century, a widespread belief was found among white American constituents that immigrant women and black women were inferior in a multitude of ways compared to the New Woman definition. Whether it was the manner in which they raised a family or their intelligence levels compared to white women, it was commonplace to find these women mistreated. Unlike their male counterparts, not only were these women expected to maintain the home life, but if a family was a short on money, these women had to work exhausting hours in squalid conditions to help make ends meet. All the while, this demographic was being paid less than white American women who held similar positions, mainly because owners and managers believed that not only were foreign women less capable of working as productively as white women, but it was thought that their skill set was much more limited than potential white American women workers. To change this widespread notion in America, it was going to take hard work and dedication to persuade American citizens that these “different” people were up to the challenge to be productive and add to American society.
One interesting aspect of the times, and something that became a model representation of the mindset of the late 19th century, was the emergence of cosmetics and the important role it played in so many different women’s’ lives. However, one item in particular that should be noted is the distinction in use of this good between white women and black women nearing the end of the 19th century. For example, working class white women were hesitant in the usage of cosmetics because of their cultural traditions, which told them to be prudent in their spending and professional in their appearance. Colored women, on the other hand, were known to be greater proponents for usage, even though it came with a tag of being a “woman of the night (Peiss, 373).” This title of being a lower class woman for wearing makeup, and other cosmetics, was a stigma which was difficult to break. Finally, some black women were persuaded to use cosmetic touchups to look “whiter,” therefore making these women more acceptable in society. This act of trying to cover up one’s skin color, because it was considered a weakness, was a prominent indicator of the behavior of the times.
While these social stigmas would have been difficult for any demographic to overcome, different groups of colored women were able to exploit these commodities and turn them around to become an advantage by creating a new representation for their abilities. For instance, beauty parlors became central institutions for colored women in the urban setting. This became a destination of choice, where women would be able to meet and create a community setting with other women, discussing issues central to their lives. This sense of belonging which was created allowed colored women to feel more a part of society and not to be the downcasts as portrayed by white women. A secondary result of the cosmetics boom for African American women was the potential for starting businesses around beauty. Colored women, such as Madame C.J.Walker and Annie Turnbo Malone, were able to capitalize on the expanding market and create great amounts of wealth for themselves. Not only did this bring new products to new segments of the population, but it demonstrated that African American women had just as much potential to create successful business enterprises as not only their female white counterparts, but their male peers as well.
It is important to consider that immigrant women did not only face challenges from outside forces, like the American women, but also from within their own households. As the men knew that the women were of little value without husbands, they were able to take advantage of the women by controlling their wages. For example, Sara Smolinsky explained how any money that she made from her job in the paper-box factory went directly to her father, where he had the authority to do what he pleased. Often times, its use was not for the betterment of the family. “I was the thinnest, smallest girl in our shop, and I earned by piecework bigger wages than the big women. And yet, when I’d bring home the wages to Father, he’d never let me have the money to buy myself something I needed (Yezierska, 89).” Her mother was heard advocating on Sara’s behalf, arguing that she didn’t have proper clothing for the winter weather, but to no avail. Reb Smolinsky knew that he had the final say in any financial matter, and if he thought his personal needs for the wages would better help the family, then so be it. Sara, like all other immigrant women, was completely helpless in these situations.
The only way it was possible to break out of her father’s reign was to venture out and create a new life of her own, regardless of what society thought about her chances for survival. Sara was a revolutionary in her own family in the fact that she was independent enough to desire a new life for herself, and she was going to sacrifice herself to get out of her father’s autonomy. “I’m smart enough to look out for myself. It’s a new life now. In America, women don’t need men to boss them (Yezierska, 137).” Sara took the initiative to remove herself from the destructive situation and decided to move to New York City, to get her own job, to take classes at night, and to start anew. This determination was the epitome of what was necessary for immigrant women to command respect in America. Even when people doubted her ambitions, she fought through, taking a job laundering clothes and trying to advance her position through hard work and persistence. Her role proved that women were strong to not only take care of themselves, but that they could be thrive in independence just as any man could.
Another aspect of a woman’s life from an immigrant background which characterized their situation in American society was their lack of power to find a man for love and not to be arranged with a man based on superficial reasons. For example, in the novel Bread Givers, there are multiple cases where Reb Smolinsky frightens away potential suitors from his daughters because they don’t meet the standards that have been setup by the father. The readers are introduced to Berel Bernstein, a cutter from the local market, who is a potential suitor for Bessie. However, the match never happens because the father is unwilling to lose Bessie, his most productive daughter when it comes to earning wages for the family, to a complete stranger. Reb is insistent that Berel should pay some type of dowry to the Smolinsky family to compensate them for their future losses. Mr. Bernstein refuses this potential transaction and leaves Bessie behind, eventually marrying another woman, leaving Bessie heartbroken and hopeless. This situation was not uncommon in America, as old cultures from previous countries, where family was first and foremost, clashed with the new American culture, leaving many women in similar predicaments.
Finally, in response to this culture’s representation of women as weak and having only one role in a family, which would be to keep up with the domestic responsibilities, immigrant and colored women needed to prove that they could be self-sufficient and had the capabilities to make decisions for themselves. This revolutionary new idea, which came to be known as the “New Woman,” was portrayed in literary tales as being more attractive to possible “heroes,” or suitors, than the alternative, which was the woman keeping up a home life. According to Ann Kaplan, author of Romancing The Empire, “Marriage is described here not simply in the rhetoric of political conquest…but in the language of political collaboration, the language of desire. Voluntarily chosen by the woman, rather than forcibly imposed, marriage represents the modern alternative to both empire and revolution (Kaplan, 108).” Simply put, the institution of marriage was being reinvented by the New Woman, giving her the freedom of choice in what she wanted out of life. As these women continued to increase their skills and knowledge, their worth became more than just helping to create a family, thus making it more difficult for fathers and potential suitors to use marriage as a bargaining chip.
In summation, the plights that were suffered by all colored people and new immigrants at the end of the 19th century were something that few groups of people have had to experience. Further examination reveals that specifically women of these two groups had to overcome many artificial boundaries that were established by the dominant American society during the times. To accomplish these feats, new tactics were employed, with the main goal to show that they were all equally worthy as the white women. These new strategies, including increasing their position by becoming independent in regards to wages, husbands, and education, would be deemed successful in the transition to greater acceptance across America. This example of self-determination is one that should be admired for the strength and perseverance that prevailed in these trying terms.
At the end of the 19th century, leading into the beginning of the 20th century, a widespread belief was found among white American constituents that immigrant women and black women were inferior in a multitude of ways compared to the New Woman definition. Whether it was the manner in which they raised a family or their intelligence levels compared to white women, it was commonplace to find these women mistreated. Unlike their male counterparts, not only were these women expected to maintain the home life, but if a family was a short on money, these women had to work exhausting hours in squalid conditions to help make ends meet. All the while, this demographic was being paid less than white American women who held similar positions, mainly because owners and managers believed that not only were foreign women less capable of working as productively as white women, but it was thought that their skill set was much more limited than potential white American women workers. To change this widespread notion in America, it was going to take hard work and dedication to persuade American citizens that these “different” people were up to the challenge to be productive and add to American society.
One interesting aspect of the times, and something that became a model representation of the mindset of the late 19th century, was the emergence of cosmetics and the important role it played in so many different women’s’ lives. However, one item in particular that should be noted is the distinction in use of this good between white women and black women nearing the end of the 19th century. For example, working class white women were hesitant in the usage of cosmetics because of their cultural traditions, which told them to be prudent in their spending and professional in their appearance. Colored women, on the other hand, were known to be greater proponents for usage, even though it came with a tag of being a “woman of the night (Peiss, 373).” This title of being a lower class woman for wearing makeup, and other cosmetics, was a stigma which was difficult to break. Finally, some black women were persuaded to use cosmetic touchups to look “whiter,” therefore making these women more acceptable in society. This act of trying to cover up one’s skin color, because it was considered a weakness, was a prominent indicator of the behavior of the times.
While these social stigmas would have been difficult for any demographic to overcome, different groups of colored women were able to exploit these commodities and turn them around to become an advantage by creating a new representation for their abilities. For instance, beauty parlors became central institutions for colored women in the urban setting. This became a destination of choice, where women would be able to meet and create a community setting with other women, discussing issues central to their lives. This sense of belonging which was created allowed colored women to feel more a part of society and not to be the downcasts as portrayed by white women. A secondary result of the cosmetics boom for African American women was the potential for starting businesses around beauty. Colored women, such as Madame C.J.Walker and Annie Turnbo Malone, were able to capitalize on the expanding market and create great amounts of wealth for themselves. Not only did this bring new products to new segments of the population, but it demonstrated that African American women had just as much potential to create successful business enterprises as not only their female white counterparts, but their male peers as well.
It is important to consider that immigrant women did not only face challenges from outside forces, like the American women, but also from within their own households. As the men knew that the women were of little value without husbands, they were able to take advantage of the women by controlling their wages. For example, Sara Smolinsky explained how any money that she made from her job in the paper-box factory went directly to her father, where he had the authority to do what he pleased. Often times, its use was not for the betterment of the family. “I was the thinnest, smallest girl in our shop, and I earned by piecework bigger wages than the big women. And yet, when I’d bring home the wages to Father, he’d never let me have the money to buy myself something I needed (Yezierska, 89).” Her mother was heard advocating on Sara’s behalf, arguing that she didn’t have proper clothing for the winter weather, but to no avail. Reb Smolinsky knew that he had the final say in any financial matter, and if he thought his personal needs for the wages would better help the family, then so be it. Sara, like all other immigrant women, was completely helpless in these situations.
The only way it was possible to break out of her father’s reign was to venture out and create a new life of her own, regardless of what society thought about her chances for survival. Sara was a revolutionary in her own family in the fact that she was independent enough to desire a new life for herself, and she was going to sacrifice herself to get out of her father’s autonomy. “I’m smart enough to look out for myself. It’s a new life now. In America, women don’t need men to boss them (Yezierska, 137).” Sara took the initiative to remove herself from the destructive situation and decided to move to New York City, to get her own job, to take classes at night, and to start anew. This determination was the epitome of what was necessary for immigrant women to command respect in America. Even when people doubted her ambitions, she fought through, taking a job laundering clothes and trying to advance her position through hard work and persistence. Her role proved that women were strong to not only take care of themselves, but that they could be thrive in independence just as any man could.
Another aspect of a woman’s life from an immigrant background which characterized their situation in American society was their lack of power to find a man for love and not to be arranged with a man based on superficial reasons. For example, in the novel Bread Givers, there are multiple cases where Reb Smolinsky frightens away potential suitors from his daughters because they don’t meet the standards that have been setup by the father. The readers are introduced to Berel Bernstein, a cutter from the local market, who is a potential suitor for Bessie. However, the match never happens because the father is unwilling to lose Bessie, his most productive daughter when it comes to earning wages for the family, to a complete stranger. Reb is insistent that Berel should pay some type of dowry to the Smolinsky family to compensate them for their future losses. Mr. Bernstein refuses this potential transaction and leaves Bessie behind, eventually marrying another woman, leaving Bessie heartbroken and hopeless. This situation was not uncommon in America, as old cultures from previous countries, where family was first and foremost, clashed with the new American culture, leaving many women in similar predicaments.
Finally, in response to this culture’s representation of women as weak and having only one role in a family, which would be to keep up with the domestic responsibilities, immigrant and colored women needed to prove that they could be self-sufficient and had the capabilities to make decisions for themselves. This revolutionary new idea, which came to be known as the “New Woman,” was portrayed in literary tales as being more attractive to possible “heroes,” or suitors, than the alternative, which was the woman keeping up a home life. According to Ann Kaplan, author of Romancing The Empire, “Marriage is described here not simply in the rhetoric of political conquest…but in the language of political collaboration, the language of desire. Voluntarily chosen by the woman, rather than forcibly imposed, marriage represents the modern alternative to both empire and revolution (Kaplan, 108).” Simply put, the institution of marriage was being reinvented by the New Woman, giving her the freedom of choice in what she wanted out of life. As these women continued to increase their skills and knowledge, their worth became more than just helping to create a family, thus making it more difficult for fathers and potential suitors to use marriage as a bargaining chip.
In summation, the plights that were suffered by all colored people and new immigrants at the end of the 19th century were something that few groups of people have had to experience. Further examination reveals that specifically women of these two groups had to overcome many artificial boundaries that were established by the dominant American society during the times. To accomplish these feats, new tactics were employed, with the main goal to show that they were all equally worthy as the white women. These new strategies, including increasing their position by becoming independent in regards to wages, husbands, and education, would be deemed successful in the transition to greater acceptance across America. This example of self-determination is one that should be admired for the strength and perseverance that prevailed in these trying terms.
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